Prophylactic and therapeutic methods against histomoniasis in poultry

. 
This indicated that attenuated H. meleagridis did 
not cause any adverse effects to infected chickens 
and turkeys. This was one of a very few studies 
focusing on vaccinations of this parasite in 
chickens. These findings could be useful for 
further investigations in the vaccine development 
for histomoniasis. However, the design of this 
study was not strongly convincing. The authors 
used a dose of only 104 histomonads per bird, 
which was significantly lower than the dose used 
by other scientists, ranging from 1.4x105 to 106 
parasites per bird (Zenner et al., 2003; Hu & 
McDougald, 2004; Hafez & Hauck, 2006; van 
Der Heijden et al., 2008). It could explain why 
no changes were observed in the birds infected 
by attenuated parasites. Further studies are 
required to confirm the effectiveness of the 
immunization produced by these attenuated 
isolates. 
A recent study conducted by Nguyen Pham 
et al. (2013) examined the protective 
effectiveness of the low-virulent H. meleagridis 
against blackhead disease in turkeys. The low-
virulent H. meleagridis was produced by serial 
intracloacal passages, which are also known as 
back passages. The back passage comprised of an 
intracloacal inoculation of histomonad to 3-
week-old birds. Thirteen days post-inoculation, 
these birds were euthanized to obtain the parasite 
for reinoculation of new birds. An examination 
of the virulence of the back passages showed that 
the last three intracloacal passages, did not cause 
any of the typical lesions found in turkeys. 
Subsequently, back passage 10 was used to test 
the protective capacity against H. meleagridis. 
Nguyen Van Phuong & Bui Khanh Linh (2020) 
https://vjas.vnua.edu.vn/ 603 
The birds vaccinated with this low virulent back 
passage yielded minor clinical signs, and lower 
liver and caecal lesion scores compared to the 
unvaccinated challenged group; and no mortality 
compared to 71% in the unvaccinated group in an 
experimental challenge with a virulent strain of 
the parasite. This result indicated that the low-
virulent H. meleagridis attenuated by serial 
intracloacally passages was able to protect 
turkeys from a virulent strain of this parasite. A 
logical experiment design used in this study 
made its findings persuasive. 
In general, most studies evaluating 
histomoniasis vaccination were conducted 
exclusively in turkeys. The transfer of serum 
antibodies from experimentally infected birds 
was unable to protect birds from histomonads 
infection, while active immunization created by 
injecting antigens showed protective activity. 
Several authors proved that a vaccination with in 
vitro attenuated parasites could provide 
protection to turkeys against H. meleagridis 
independently of administration (Table 4). 
Additionally, this type of vaccination did not 
alter the performance of the subjected birds. In a 
practical sense, the production of an effective 
vaccine would require not only sophisticated 
techniques but also a harmonization between 
laboratory experiments and field demand. 
The future of histomoniasis treatments 
Following the ban of nitroimidazoles, 
recognized as high potential antihistomonal 
drugs in the European Union and some other 
countries, due to the concern of ecological and 
human health threats, researchers were forced to 
search for viable alternatives in preventing 
histomoniasis. In general, three different 
approaches were investigated to deal with the 
situation. These were the application of 
antibiotics showing antiprotozoal activity, 
testing plant substances, particularly some 
essential oils, and the attempt to develop 
effective vaccines. 
Among the various drugs tested, Histostat-
50 and Paromomycin are the two available drugs 
in some markets that possess antihistomonal 
activity despite recently raised concerns about 
deleterious side effects such as bacterial 
resistance and consumer safety. It is, therefore, 
crucial for policymakers to strike a balance 
between the benefits of the consumer and the 
sustainability of animal production. 
A large number of plant substances were 
tested for their effectiveness against 
histomoniasis, none of which conferred reliable 
protection to birds in in vivo experiments. There 
was a lack of standardized methodology for 
infection among the studies that led to 
inconsistent results. It is therefore recommended 
to address this issue in further investigations. 
Approaches to different types of 
immunizations showed that only vaccinations 
with attenuated parasites could induce reliable 
protection from histomoniasis in turkeys. 
However, the production of vaccines, 
particularly for this protist, would be challenging 
due to a high level of sophisticated techniques 
required. 
Acknowledgements 
We are grateful for the comments of Dr. Anne 
Beasley at the University of Queensland. She also 
answered numerous questions about the language 
of this paper. We also thank Prof. Nguyen Van Tho 
and Dr. Nguyen Thi Hong Chien, our colleagues 
at the Vietnam National University of Agriculture, 
who also looked over our transcriptions and 
provided valuable comments. 
 Table 4. Literature evaluating the effectiveness of vaccinations in the protection of birds from histomoniasis 
Passive vaccination Active vaccination 
Antigens Inactivated parasite Attenuated parasite 
Bleyen et al. (2009)* Bleyen et al. (2009) Hess et al. (2008)* 
Hess et al. (2008); 
Liebhart et al. (2010); 
Nguyen Pham et al. (2013) 
 Note: * Proved to be ineffective to protect birds from blackhead disease. 
Prophylactic and therapeutic methods against histomoniasis in poultry 
604 Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences 
We acknowledge the insightful comments 
offered by the anonymous reviewers and the hard 
work of the language reviewers who saved us 
from many errors. 
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